The Canada Page

I set out to make a useful page and I find out a month later that the Department of Foreign Affairs has made one about a zillion times better than mine (except without the sarcastic comments.) Here is a link to DFAIT's history in their own words.
http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/hist/

I'm still going to keep my history up since I think it is worth while, it has some information that DFAIT does not provide and I worked way to long on it to throw it out!

Oh, and I recently added a list of international organizations that Canada belongs to and a brief explanation of why we belong to so many. Check it out here!

On December 12, 2003, Prime Minister Martin announced changes to the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade.

All our services, programs and activities will now be offered by two separate departments:

Foreign Affairs Canada promotes peace, prosperity and Canadian values around the world. FAC accomplishes this by:

International Trade Canada works to position Canada as a business leader for the 21st century. ITCan helps large and small Canadian companies expand and succeed internationally, promotes Canada as a dynamic place to do business, and negotiates and administers trade agreements.

The department has also added Investment Partnerships Canada from Industry Canada.

Here is a history of Canadian foreign policy that I have been working on from Confederation to the end of the Cold War. Just a warning - so far this is pretty lengthy and boring. I hope to make it more interesting soon. I just wanted to update before the end of the month.

Sources: My political studies courses (thanks Queen's!), Right Honourable Men by Michael Bliss, (RHM) and "Canada World View" - a magazine published by the Department of Foreign Affairs, (CWV).

As many of you know, Canada was a British colony until 1867 when we had Confederation and we became a dominion. This meant that while we had some self government, many of the powers that our country can exercise today were still controlled by Britain - notably, foreign policy.

This had certain consequences for Canada. First of all, we didn't have our own embassies through out the world. We were represented on an international scale by Britain. Secondly, should Britain declare war on a country, we were automatically bound to be at war too. (This was really resented by French Canada and became a flash point for anger in Quebec during WWI.)

Ministers in the Department of Foreign Affairs Please note that all ministers are also Members of Parliament.

Bill Graham
Minister of Foreign Affairs

Aileen Carroll
Minister for International Cooperation

Denis Coderre
Minister Responsible for La Francophonie

Dan McTeague
Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Foreign Affairs (Canadians Abroad)

Scott Brison
Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister (Canada-U.S.)

Now, for the people who organized Confederation, not having control of foreign policy wasn't a big issue. A lot of them were British born or from British decent and therefore wanted Canada to remain a part of the British Empire rather than be a new country. (First Canadian Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald's famous quote: "a British subject I was born and a British subject I will die!" Not exactly a die hard Canadian nationalist.)

So for the first years of Canada - there really isn't too much to say with regards to foreign policy. We sent some soldiers to fight Britain's wars and... well... that's about it on a large scale. We had mostly domestic issues to worry about at the time too.

However, as Canada grew in the late 1800s, leaders started to make baby steps towards creating a foreign policy. In 1880, Sir Alexander T. Galt was appointed as Canada's High Commissioner to London; 1882, Hector Fabre was appointed General Agent for the Province of Quebec in France as well as Commissioner-General and commercial agent for Canada; 1893, Canadian PM Sir Charles Tupper negotiated a trade agreement with France. This "translated the right of commercial autonomy into practice for the first time" (CWV); 1894, John Short Larke was appointed resident commercial agent in Australia - the fire official Canadian Trade Commissioner.

Things weren't always so automatic however. In 1884, Sir John A. Macdonald refused to send a military contingent "to relieve the besieged British garrison in Khartoum," (CWV). In 1899, the British got rather upset at the Boer's in South Africa and declared war - which automatically brought us into the conflict. However, PM Laurier wasn't exactly thrilled at the prospect of sending troops to Africa and only sent a battalion of volunteers to go.

In fact, many call Laurier the first Canadian nationalist PM. Whereas Mcdonald was very pro-British in his outlook, Laurier seemed to have, more or less, a vision in his head of a Canadian country that was more independent. (He was also French-Canadian and bilingual.) In 1902, during the first stages of the German scare in Britain, many were calling for a central, single Imperial navy that would be lead, of course, by Britain. Laurier rejected this at the Fourth Colonial Conference in London. Instead, Laurier's "eventual response was the creation of a separate Canadian navy" (CWV).

In 1909 a big step was taken with the External Affairs Act of 1909. This lead to the establishment of the Department of External Affairs (DEA) under the authority of the Secretary of State, with Under-Secretary Joseph Pope and four clerks. The External Affairs Act, 1909, was amended in 1912 to give the PM direct responsibility for the DEA. (If you check out the PM bios at this time, on this site, you will see that their positions included Minister of External Affairs.)

However, events in Europe would soon prove that Canada was still a long way off from having am independent foreign policy.

World War I:*
As Canada World View states: August 5, 1914: In the name of the British

Empire, King George V declared war on Germany. Ottawa was simply informed that Canada was at war," (CWV). Surprise! While member of the House of Commons from English Canada largely shouted "Ready aye! Ready!" with regards to the war. Many in Quebec were very upset by this declaration. They saw the war as a part of Europe's problem and didn't feel that they should be forced into it. The war and the issue of conscription lead to riots in Quebec and a feeling of resentment (which some have suggested still exists today.) Anyway, this is going off topic but it is an important issue. I hope to write about it further one day. If you want to get more of what Quebec was thinking, I suggest reading La Guerre? Yes, Sir! by Roch Carrier. It's also important to note this sentiment because it helped to lead to important changes in the way Canada conducts its foreign policy later on.

So Canada fought WWI and paid a heavy price. Thousands lost their lives. But Canadians had also proven themselves in WWI. Canadian historians often point to the Canadian triumph at Vimy Ridge.)Michael Bliss has argued in his book Right Honourable Men that PM Robert Borden, "who has a compelling claim to be the father of Canada's effective independence" believed that "Canada was by now, practically speaking, independent - though formal constitutional ratification by Great Britain of the Dominion's independence had yet to follow." Therefore, for these reasons, he insisted that Canada be able to represent itself at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. On June 26, of that year, Canada signed the Versailles Peace Treaty with Germany as an independent nation within the British Commonwealth. This was really the first time we had been recognized on the international stage. According to Bliss:
[Borden] took immense pride in his participation in the Imperial War Cabinet and in Canada's status as a full member of the British delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, and was certain that his contributions to these deliberations were the most important work of his career... Bordon believed he was seeing the British Empire evolve into a British Commonwealth of independent nations that would freely agree, because of the strength of their common ties, to implement common foreign and defence policies. He saw himself as the Canadian spokesman at the Commonwealth councils developing such policies. (RHM)

Alas - things aren't as easy we'd like them. The British wanted Canada to maintain its troops to Russia to fight in the civil war there (against the communists) after WWI. Although some conscript soldiers were sent into Vladivostok two weeks before WWI ended, Borden and his cabinet knew that there was no public support for such a war. According to Bliss, the British "were not happy," and "it was not an auspicious beginning to the idea of a common Commonwealth policy."

Apparently this wasn't such a large problem for Borden who was upset at some of the British actions and suggestions at the war. (ie: Borden wanted a foreign policy that wouldn't anger the Americans too much, and flat out rejected the British suggestion that the Kaiser should be put on trial for war crimes.) He wrote in his diary:
I am beginning to feel more and more that in the end, and perhaps sooner than later, Canada must assume full sovereignty. She can give better service to G.B. and U.S. and to the world that way. (RHM)
Bliss suggests that Borden was the first Prime Minister to see Canada as having vitally important ties with both the US and Britain - what Canadian statesmen came to call the "North Atlantic triangle,": Canada being some kind of lynch pin between US and Britain. (RHM)

In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations. There, Canada lobbied for the strongly supported the binding arbitration mechanisms and the disarmament provisions in the League's Covenant. Alas, the League did not fare too well, nor did Canada's hopes for disarmament. But it was an important step in our foreign policy.

Interwar Years:
In 1923, the Canada-US halibut Fisheries Treaty was concluded. Prime Minister Mackenzie King gave Canadian foreign policy another step towards independence when he decided not to include the British in the negotiations because "the Treaty dealt solely with North American affairs. This was the first international treaty that a Dominion signed without the accompanying signature of Britain," (CWV).

In January1922, Mackenzie King hear Oscar Douglas Skelton - the then Dean of Arts at Queen's University (my alma matter! yeah!) give a speech at the Canadian Club luncheon on the need for Canada to develop its own foreign policy "a position close to King's own heart" (CWV). In his speech Skelton said:
Foreign policy is an extension of domestic policy and as we have gained control of the one, so we must gain control of the other...

Three years later, King asked Skelton to replace Sir Joesph Pope, Canada's Under-Secretary of State for External Affairs. Skelton accepted the position and subsequently transformed the DEA and Canada's foreign service. He introduced competitive exams and promotion by merit. Skelton was responsible for recruiting many of those who would go on to make a significant contributions to the country later on including Lester Pearson who would eventually win the noble peace prize and become Prime Minister. Skelton would stay on through to 1941 when he died on the job in the middle of a busy working day. Remembering the great suffering that Canada expereinced in WWI, Skelton advised King to avoid becoming entangled in another war. However, when it appeared that the democracies of the world would have to stand up to Nazi aggression, Skelton stayed on as a faithful minister.

In 1925 Canada House was opened. This became the official office of the Canadian High Commissioner in London, England. This was followed by a Canadian Legation established in Paris in 1927 and Tokyo in 1928.

1926 saw Vincent Massey become the first Canadian Minister to the United States. "His appointment marked the beginning of Canada's autonomous relations with that country. The following year, Canada officially opened a Legation in Washington," (CWV).

The momentum for an independent foreign policy was gathering. In 1931, the Imperial Conference adopted the Balfour Declaration, which formed the basis of the Statute of Westminster, adopted in 1931 - one of the most important pieces of legislation in Canadian constitutional history:
It made Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Newfoundland and Ireland 'fully independent dominions equal in status to but closely associated with the mother country' as part of the British Commonwealth of Nations. (CWV).

In the 1930's, PM Bennett passed legislation taxing all advertising in an attempt to slow the influx of U.S. magazines into Canada - a big concern at the time and today. (The Chretien government introduced legislation with a similar goal in the late 1990s.) The law was repealed by PM King in 1936. King had also negotiated a three-year most-favored nation trade agreement between Canada and the United States in 1935 which "would form the basis for increasingly close relations between the two countries later on," (CWV).

In 1937, PM King met with Adolf Hitler "and indicated that Canada would come to the aid of the United Kingdom in case of German aggression," (CWV). Michael Bliss notes: "Hitler was not noticeably deterred." However, throughout the 1930s, King realized that a country suffering through the depression and lost so many lives in WWI had a lot of opposition to the war. In 1935, it was clear that he wanted to put Canadian unity first: "Canada's first duty to the League (of Nations) and to the British Empire, with respect to all the great issues that come up is, if possible to keep this country united," (RHM). In other words - try to stay out of another war which was appearing closer and closer on the horizon.

World War II:*
War eventually did come in 1939, with the German invasion of Poland. Canada declared war on Germany, independently, in 1939. This was followed by Italy in 1940. Canada was the only country in the Americas to side with the Allies in 1939.

Again, the country mobilized for war and thousands of Canadians went overseas (including my grandfather, Staff Sgt. Charles Francis Carvin - ed). However, many of the same problems occurred. There was the problems with conscription and many people resented having to go to war.

However, there were some interesting foreign policy developments as a result of the war. In 1942, Canada and 25 other countries signed the "United Nations Declaration" (not the actual UN - that didn't come around for another 3 years although elements of the declaration were to form the basis of the organization). The Declaration stated that:
Each Government pledges itself to co-operate and to employ its full resources, military or economic, against those members of the Tripartite Pact (Germany, Italy, Japan) and its adherents.

Canada, the Aftermath of the Second World War and "Cold" Realities:
On June 26, 1945, Canada signed the UN Charter which lead to the establishment of that organization. This began Canada's love affair with the United Nations. Canada was elected to a two-year term as a non-permanent member of the Security Council beginning in January. 1948. (Canada has served on the Security Council for 2 year terms in 1948, 1958, 1967, 1976, 1988, 1999)

In 1947, PM Louis St. Laurent:
outlined a new postwar foreign policy based on the principles of national unity, political liberty, the rule of law, Christian values, and acceptance of international responsibilities. Canada would achieve this by participating in constructive international action through multilateral organizations, (CWV).

Some of that sentiment was, however, thrown to the wind as the Western nations began to perceive a growing threat in the form of the Soviet Union. Canada signed the North Atlantic Treaty and became a founding member of NATO. Canada was influential in the creation of Article 2 - sometimes referred to as "The Canadian Article" which states that NATO members will work to strengthen democracy, stability and well-being and increase economic collaboration. Although it wasn't used much during the cold war. Article 2 has proven to be very important to NATO and it's changing roles since the end of the Cold War. NATO was very convenient for Canada as previously, Canada had hesitated to enter into a commitment solely with Britain or the United States. Canadian diplomats "found it easier to participate in an organization of which both of those countries were members," (CWV).

in 1950, Canada found itself back at war when the UN declared war on North Korea. However, it lobbied hard for the UN troops to not invade China - fearing the outbreak of a third world war.

Despite the Cold War, Lester B. Pearson became Canada's first Secretary of State for External Affairs to visit the Soviet Union. The 1950's actually became a golden age for the future Prime Minister with regards to foreign policy with his mediation of the Suez Crisis and activity at the UN.

In 1958, Canada played a major role in leading the negotiations in shaping the Convention on the Law of the Sea (which didn't come into force until November 1994), and - again, a sign of cold war realities, signed the North American Defence Agreement (NORAD) - renamed the North American Aerospace Defence Command in 1981.

The 1960s saw mixed results in foreign relations. PM John Diefenbaker, "repulsed by South Arfrica's racist polices against its' black majority," was the only white leader to oppose South Africa's application for renewed Commonwealth membership at the Commonwealth Conference in 1961, (CWV). (Although Canada did keep trade relations going with South Africa).

In 1963, in an about face from previous Canadian foreign policy, Canada accepted nuclear warheads for its Bomarc missiles that had been acquired in 1959 and deployed at North Bay, Ontario and La Macaza Quebec. (In 1970 the government announced that Canada would withdraw its armed forces from their nuclear roles. As a result, the Bomarcs were phased out of service in 1971. "The issue of equipping the nuclear missiles with warheads had triggered a major debate in Canada and strained relations with the United States," (CWV).

Canada did, however, continue to contribute to peacekeeping. In 1964, Canadian peace-keepers were sent to Cyprus. They are still participating in operations there today.

In 1965, Pearson made a speech at an American University that was critical of the US policy in Vietnam. President Johnson responded by attacking Pearson for interfering in US domestic affairs. (At a post-speech luncheon with Johnson, Pearson received a presidential tongue-lashing unprecedented in the history of Canadian-American relations: "You don't come here and piss on my rug," (RHM). Canada protested the bombing again in 1972. Still, Canada secretly couriered for the US in Hanoi and was instrumental in the development of Agent Orange - a powerful defoliant that has been linked to cancer used in the Vietnam war.

But Canadians weren't the only ones causing trouble. In July, 1967, President de Gaulle strained Canadian-France relations with his cry of "Vive le Quebec libre" in a speech that gave much fuel to the separatist fire. (Pearson made it clear that de Gaulle was no longer welcome in Canada.)

Pierre Trudeau Years:
Trudeau was an academic who, had heavily criticized the decision to have nuclear warheads in Canada. He certainly had his own way of doing things. In 1970, a White Paper (fancy name for a government document - ed) was tabled called A Foreign Policy for Canadians. The paper recommended that:
foreign policy be related to six national interests: economic growth, social justice, quality of life, sovereignty and independence, peace and security and a harmonious natural environment. Canada's role in peacekeeping was to be downplayed, there was to be closer contact with Europe and developing nations and foreign aid was to be increased (CWV).

Later, in 1972, a strategy paper on relations with the United States offered three policy options: "(1) maintaining the status quo; (2) moving toward closer integration; and (30 developing a long-term strategy to strengthen Canada's economic and national life through reduced dependence on the United States. The Trudeau government decided in favour of the 'Third Option'," (CWV). However, this wasn't as successful as Trudeau would have liked. Europe largely maintained the status quo with Canada and was too focused on creating their own European Union.

In 1969, Trudeau delivered a defence policy statement declaring the government's intention to substantially reduce Canada's NATO role in commitments in Europe. This somewhat soured relations with the other NATO countries and, some have suggested lead to a decrease in Canadian influence over NATO policy.

Canada became a founding member of the agence de coopération culturelle et technique, the forerunner of La Francophonie in 1970 and, later than year recognized the People's Republic of China. In 1972, Canada became a permanent observer at the Organization of American States. (One of the few organizations that Canada had turned down an invitation to join. Many believed that the OAS was too heavily dominated by the US.) In 1977, Canada was given permanent membership status in the Group of Leading Industrial Nations. The Group of Six (G-6) became the Group of Seven (G-7).

In October of 1983, Prime Minister Trudeau launched his Peace Initiative and visited several leaders in several countries of the East and West blocs. "Trudeau's Peace Initiative led to his being awarded the Albert Einstein Peace Prize on November 13, 1984.

Mulroney Years:
In 1985, shortly after US President Reagan and PM Brian Mulroney had been elected, they met at what was called "The Shamrock Summit," because it took place on St. Patrick's Day. There, Mulroney and his wife lead Reagan and his wife onto a stage for a chorus of "When Irish Eyes are Smiling. Jack Granatstien (aptly - ed) calls this the most embarrassing moment in Canadian history. At any rate, US-Canadian relations massively improved during this time. In May 1986, the two countries launched free trade negotiations which culminated into the Canada-US Free Trade Agreement (FTA). The agreement was highly controversial in Canada and it became an election issue. The Conservatives under Mulroney were re-elected and the FTA was ratified. It officially came into force on January, 1, 1989. Canada also joined the Organization of American States, becoming a full member in 1990.

Mulroney announced in 1986 at a special session of the UN General Assembly that Canada was ready to invoke total sanctions against South Africa, up to and including the cessation of diplomatic relations. In 1991, Canada commended the repeal of apartheid laws in South Africa, lifted some Canadian sanctions against that country and applauded the start of constitutional talks for an egalitarian South Africa. Remaining Canadian sanctions were lifted in 1993.

End of the Cold War:
As many international relations commentators have said, the end of the Cold War brought about a sense of hope for the international stage, the role of the UN and other international organizations. Canada was one of many countries to condemn the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and imposed sanctions on Iraq, including the freezing of Iraqi assets in Canada. Canadian forces participated in the Gulf War to restore Kuwaiti sovereignty. In 1992, after the collapse of the USSR, Canada established diplomatic relations with several former Soviet republics.